Intercropping is an essential farming system that combines multiple crop speciessimultaneously. in ethiopia, pepper and Black cumin are interplanted with various crops,influenced by diverse environmental and agronomic factors. this review examines the impactof intercropping pepper and Black cumin on the performance of component crops andsystem productivity in ethiopia. Farmers in tropical regions practice intercropping widely toreduce dependence on monoculture, manage risks from pests, diseases, and climate variability,and enhance resilience. By integrating pepper and Black cumin with other crops, small‑scalefarmers in developing countries like ethiopia diversify crop production and improve yields.Most smallholder farmers in ethiopia cultivate plots smaller than one hectare. the landequivalent ratio is a key measure for evaluating intercropping efficiency. However, indicessuch as relative Yield total, Staple land equivalency ratio, Area time equivalency ratio, andArea Harvest equivalency ratio are also applied globally. these indices help assess the benefitsof intercropping in terms of land use and time management. to maximize productivity,farmers must carefully select crops that balance resource competition, resist pests anddiseases, and ensure yields with superior quality. promoting sustainable intercropping practicescan boost agricultural output and contribute to food security in ethiopia and similar regions.
KEYWORDS: indices; multiple cropping; sole cropping; spatial arrangement

Background: Informed consent (IC) is a principle in medical ethics and medical law that a patient must have adequate information and understanding before making decisions about their medical care. It is very essential for both clinician and patient in surgery and should be seen as a usual activity. Knowledge is one of the main intervention tools to improve patient comprehension in informed consent for surgical patients. In Ethiopia, little is known about the knowledge level and its determinant factors toward obstetric and gynecologic surgical informed consent. Due to this reason, this study aimed to assess the level of knowledge and associated factors of surgical informed consent among patients who underwent obstetric and gynecologic surgery at Debre Markos Comprehensive Specialized Hospital.
Methods: An institutional-based cross-sectional study was conducted from 28 November to 30 December 2023, among 298 postoperative women admitted to Debre Markos Comprehensive Specialized Hospital. Data were collected using a pretested, structured interviewer-administered questionnaire by using a systematic random sampling technique. The collected data were entered into EpiData version 4.6 and then exported to SPSS statistical software version 25 for analysis. A multivariable logistic regression analysis was employed to estimate the effect of independent variables on the outcome variable. An adjusted odds ratio [adjusted odds ratio (AOR)] with a 95% confidence interval (CI) was computed to report the presence of association between the dependent and independent variables. Statistical significance was determined at a P-value of

Background Providing timely first-aid by trained responders can reduce deaths and disabilities from road trafficaccidents, a leading global cause of death. Ethiopia ranks 19th worldwide and 4th in Africa. Therefore, this studyassesses the knowledge and, attitudes toward emergency first aid, and its factors among public transport drivers inInjibara, Ethiopia.Objective To assess the Knowledge, and Attitude towards first-aid utilization and its associated factors among PublicTransport Service Drivers in Injibara, Northwest Ethiopia, 2023.Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted involving 419 public transport drivers, selected systematicallybased on vehicle side numbers, starting with a random choice for the first respondent. Subsequent participants werechosen at every second interval (k = 2). A structured questionnaire was used to collect relevant data. Binary logisticregression was performed using SPSS V.26 to assess the associations between independent and dependent variables.The strength of these associations was measured using odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals, with a P-value < 0.05deemed statistically significant.Result The study revealed that the prevalence of good knowledge and favorable attitudes toward first-aid utilizationwas 33.2% and 38.2%, respectively. Participation in first-aid training (AOR = 0.566, p = 0.027), access to a first-aid kit(AOR = 1.65, p = 0.027), and prior experience using first-aid at accident scenes (AOR = 0.476, p = 0.014) were factorsassociated with better first-aid utilization. Drivers who had used a first-aid kit (AOR = 0.476, p = 0.014) and thoseexposed to training (AOR = 0.486, p = 0.034) demonstrated more positive attitudes toward first aid.Conclusion The knowledge and attitude toward first-aid utilization remain low. Participation in first-aid training,access to first-aid kits, and experience using them during accidents were factors associated with improvedknowledge. Additionally, drivers who have used first-aid kits and received training tend to have a favorable attitude
toward their use. Therefore, relevant authorities must enhance the availability of first-aid kits, increase the exposure ofdrivers, and provide training to drivers to increase their knowledge and favorable attitude towards first-aid utilization.Clinical trial number Not applicable.Keywords Knowledge, Attitude, First aid, Transport service, Ethiopia

BACKGRouNd: Trachoma is the leading infectious cause of blindness worldwide, particularly impacting the poorest nations, includingEthiopia.oBjECTivE: To assess knowledge, practice, and associated factors of trachoma transmission and prevention among primary school stu-dents in Addis Zemen town, South Gondar, Northwest Ethiopia, 2022.METhodS: An institution-based cross-sectional study was conducted on 407 randomly selected primary school students (grades 5-8),aged 10 to 24 years. Data collection included face-to-face interviews using structured questionnaires and an observation checklist. Epi-dataversion 4.2.0.0 and SPSS version 20 were used to enter and analyze the collected data, respectively. The data were analyzed using thedescriptive statistical method and using bivariable and multivariable logistic regression models. Variables with a P-value

Malaria and leptospirosis are emerging vector-borne diseases that pose significant global healthproblems in tropical and subtropical regions. This study aimed to develop and analyze amathematical model for the transmission dynamics of malaria-leptospirosis co-infection withoptimal control measures. The model’s dynamics are examined through its two sub-models:one for malaria alone and the other for leptospirosis alone. We apply a next-generationmatrix approach to derive the basic reproduction numbers for the sub-models. By using thereproduction number, we demonstrate the local and global asymptotic stability of both disease-free and endemic equilibria in these sub-models. We perform numerical experiments to validatethe theoretical outcomes of the full co-infection model. The graphical results show that malaria-leptospirosis co-infection will be eradicated from the population through time if 𝑅0𝑚𝑙 < 1.Conversely, if 𝑅0𝑚𝑙 > 1, the co-infection will persist in the population. Furthermore, weinvestigate an optimal control model to demonstrate the impact of various time-dependentcontrols in reducing the spread of both diseases and their co-infection. We use the forward–backward sweep iterative method to perform numerical simulations of the optimal controlproblem. Our findings of the optimal control problem imply that strategy 𝐷, which incorporatesall optimal controls, namely malaria prevention 𝜔1(𝑡), leptospirosis prevention 𝜔2(𝑡), insecticidecontrol measure for malaria 𝜔3(𝑡), control sanitation rate of the environment 𝜔4(𝑡) is the mosteffective in minimizing our objective function. We also conduct a cost-effectiveness analysis toidentify the predominant strategy in terms of cost among the optimal strategies.
Keywords: Malaria, Leptospirosis, Co-infection, Global stability, Optimal control, Numerical simulations, Cost-effective strategy

Background: Staphylococcus aureus is a major pathogenic bacterium associated with high morbidity and mortality worldwide. It exhibits resistance to multiple antibiotics, complicating treatment options. Despite its clinical significance, there is limited data on the prevalence of S. aureus infections and the patterns of methicillin and inducible clindamycin resistance, particularly in Ethiopia. Understanding these resistance trends is essential for guiding appropriate therapy and improving patient outcomes.
Objective: To assess the prevalence of S. aureus, methicillin and inducible clindamycin resistance patterns, and associated factors among patients with suspected bacterial infection at Debre Markos Comprehensive Specialized Hospital, Northwest Ethiopia.
Method: A hospital-based cross-sectional study was conducted among patients suspected of bacterial infections from 10 June 2023 to 28 February 2024. Blood, wound swab, cerebrospinal fluid, urine, eye swab, synovial fluid, ear swab, and pleural fluid were collected aseptically and inoculated onto appropriate media. S. aureus was identified based on colony morphology, Gram staining, DNase test and biochemical tests. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed on the isolates using the disk diffusion and the D-test techniques based on CLSI guideline. Data were entered into SPSS version 26 for analysis. Logistic regression was applied to assess the relationship between predictors and the outcome variable. A P-value of ≤ 0.05 with a 95% CI was considered statistically significant.
Results: Among the 339 study participants, 38 (11.2%) (95% CI: 8-15) tested positive for S. aureus. Of these isolates, 14/38 (36.9%) were resistant to methicillin, 5/38 (13.1%) isolates were resistance to clindamycin by routine disk diffusion test whereas 10/38 (26.3%) isolates exhibited inducible clindamycin resistance using the D-test. The level of multidrug resistance was noted in 10/38 (26.3%) of the isolates. Significant factors associated with S. aureus infection included illiteracy (AOR = 13.51; 95% CI: 3.56-21.90; P = 0.018), having larger family size (AOR = 12.14; 95% CI: 2.38-20.43; P = 0.024), and income level of less than 3,000 ETB (AOR = 6.20; 95% CI: 1.03-30.09; P = 0.046).
Conclusion: The study revealed an 11.2% occurrence of S. aureus among the study participants, with a substantial proportion exhibiting methicillin resistance (36.9%) and inducible clindamycin resistance (26.3%). These findings highlight a higher burden of clindamycin resistance in MRSA, underscoring the need for routine D-test screening to guide appropriate antibiotic therapy. Additionally, factors such illiteracy, low income and residing in rural areas were associated with S. aureus infection. Targeted health education initiatives should be implemented, especially in rural areas and among populations with low literacy levels, to improve hygiene practices and reduce transmission.

Keywords: Ethiopia; S. aureus; antimicrobial resistance; inducible clindamycin resistance; methicillin resistance; prevalence.

The use of long acting contraceptive methods is a commonpractice among women seeking to prevent unintended pregnanciesand plan their families. This study seeks to identify factors associ-ated with the practice of long-acting contraceptive methods, par-ticularly in a conflict-affected area in Awi zone, North WestEthiopia. A cross-sectional study was conducted on a multistagerandom sample of 1,334 women’s. Bivariable and multivariablebinary logistic regression has been applied to identify determinantfactors. Among the 1,334 women surveyed, 25.49% reportedusing long-acting contraceptive methods. The analysis revealedthat women’s educational level, wealth index, being visited byhealth extension, marital status, use of children as a source ofincome, and occupational status of women were factors signifi-cantly hindering the use of long-acting contraceptive methods inthe area. In conclusion, higher contraceptive use was observedamong educated, married women, women who used children as asource of income, and women employed by the government. It istherefore recommended that government officials in Awi Zone andpolicy makers should implement programs to increase female edu-cation and employment, which could lead to greater use of contra-ceptive methods for effective family planning.
Key words: Awi Zone, contraceptive methods, family planning, multiple logistic regression, Ethiopia.

Melioidosis is a significant health problem in tropical and subtropical regions, especially inSoutheast Asia and Northern Australia. Recurrent melioidosis is a major obstacle to eliminatingthe disease from the community in these nations. This work aims to propose and analyzea human melioidosis model with recurrent phenomena and an optimal control model byincorporating time-dependent control functions. The basic reproduction number (𝑅0) of theuncontrolled model is derived using the method of the next-generation matrix. Using theconstruction of a Lyapunov functional, we present the global asymptotic dynamics of theautonomous model in the presence of recurrent for both disease-free and endemic equilibria. Theglobal asymptotic stability of the model’s equilibria shows the absence of a backward bifurcationfor the model in both cases, whether in the absence or presence of relapse. The sensitivityanalysis aims to identify the parameters that have the most significant impact on the model’sdynamics. Furthermore, qualitative analysis of the model’s global dynamics and the changingeffect of the most influential parameters on 𝑅0 are supported by numerical experiments, with theresults being illustrated graphically. The model with time-dependent controls is analyzed usingoptimal control theory to assess the impact of various intervention strategies on the spread ofthe epidemic. The numerical results of the optimality system are carried out using the Forward–Backward Sweep method in Matlab. We also conducted a cost-effectiveness analysis using twoapproaches: the average cost-effectiveness ratio and the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio.
Keywords: Melioidosis model; B.pseudomallei; Recurrent; Global stability; Optimal control; Cost-effective strategy

Illnesses associated with consuming infected milk and milk products are a widespread problem inlow and middle-income countries. Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) is a bacteriumcommonly found in raw milk and causes foodborne diseases ranging from mild diarrhea to severehemorrhagic colitis and hemolytic uremic syndrome. This study aimed to investigate the viru-lence gene and antimicrobial resistance profiles of Shiga toxin-producing E. coli strains isolatedfrom raw milk in dairy farms in and around Bahir Dar town. Raw milk samples (n = 128)collected from December 2021 to July 2022 were cultured, and E. coli strains were isolated usingstandard methods. Shiga toxin-producing E. coli strains were identified genotypically by thepresence of the virulence markers using a single-plex polymerase chain reaction. The antibioticsusceptibility testing of Shiga toxin-producing E. coli isolates was done by the agar disk diffusionmethod. In total, 32 E. coli isolates were recovered from milk samples from lactating animals. PCRscreening of these isolates resulted in 19 (59.3%) positives for Shiga toxin-producing E. coli. Thestx2 gene was detected in 53% of cases, followed by stx1 (31%) and eae (16%. The STEC isolateswere highly sensitive to ciprofloxacin (94.7%) and kanamycin (89.5%), while exhibiting signif-icant resistance to amoxicillin (89.5%) and streptomycin (73.7%). The present study points outthe occurrence of virulent and antibiotic-resistant Shiga toxin-producing E. coli strains in raw milkthat could pose a potential risk to public health. Further analysis by whole genome sequencing isnecessary for an in-depth assessment and understanding of their virulence and resistance factors.Moreover, large-scale studies are needed to identify the prevalence and potential risk factors andto prevent the spread of antibiotic-resistant STEC strains in the milk production chain.

Background: Heart failure is a leading cause of hospital readmissions in the Amhara region, Northwest Ethiopia.Aim: This study aimed to determine the number of readmissions and identify the determinants among patients with heartfailure at referral hospitals in the Amhara region, Northwest Ethiopia, in 2023.Methods: A cross‐sectional study was conducted with 663 heart failure patients in Amhara region referral hospitals fromSeptember 2022 to February 2023. Simple random sampling was used for patient selection, and data were collected throughchart reviews and interviewer‐administered questionnaires. Zero‐inflated negative binomial models were applied for dataanalysis. Data collection tools were pre‐tested for reliability and validity.Results: Among 663 patients, 237 (35.7%) were readmitted at least once. An increased respiratory rate (IRR = 1.015; 95%CI: 1.0004, 1.031; p < 0.044) and longer medication duration (IRR = 1.011; 95% CI: 1.016, 1.051; p < 0.0001) were asso-ciated with more readmissions. Patients with poor social support had 59.4% fewer readmissions compared to those withgood social support (IRR = −1.595; 95% CI: −0.02, −0.005; p < 0.041). A higher body mass index (IRR = 0.115; 95% CI:0.035, 0.196; p < 0.004) was linked with a higher likelihood of remaining in the “always‐zero” group, while an increasedpulse rate reduced the odds (IRR = −0.013; 95% CI: −0.025, −0.008; p < 0.036). The mortality rate among readmittedpatients was 11.39%.Conclusion: This study found significant readmission rates among HF patients. Factors such as respiratory rate andmedication duration were linked to increased readmissions, while poor social support was associated with fewerreadmissions, this likely reflects limited healthcare access in low‐ and middle‐income countries among individuals withlower social support. The high mortality rate underscores the need for targeted interventions to improve patientoutcomes.