EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Agricultural financing plays a critical role in enhancing crop productivity and fostering rural development, particularly in agrarian economies. This study aims to empirically investigate the impact of agricultural financing on the crop productivity of smallholder farmers and assess its implications on income inequality. To achieve this objective, a mixed research approach was adopted, integrating both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. An explanatory research design was employed to explore the causal relationship between access to agricultural financing and crop output. Primary data were collected from a sample of 800 crop-producing households using structured questionnaires, interview schedules, and focus group discussions, selected through simple random sampling. Secondary data were obtained through document reviews from relevant institutional sources. The data were analysed using descriptive statistics and econometric modelling techniques, specifically Propensity Score Matching (PSM), to estimate the Average Treatment Effect on the Treated (ATT). A binary logit model was used to identify the determinants of access to agricultural financing. The results revealed that age, seed cost, labor cost, tractor access (as a proxy for infrastructure), education level, and farming experience significantly influenced whether a household received agricultural financing. Conversely, variables such as plant protection, fertilizer use, and landholding size were found to have an insignificant effect. The covariate balancing indicators and balance plots confirmed that the matching algorithms were successful in reducing selection bias, with mean standardized bias decreasing by up to 77.5% and pseudo R² values dropping significantly post-matching. The common support condition was also satisfied, ensuring the reliability of the PSM estimates. The PSM results confirmed that agricultural financing had a statistically significant and positive impact on crop productivity. On average, farmers with access to financing produced ETB 3,942.53 to ETB 6,251.01 more per season compared to those without access, depending on the matching algorithm used (NNM-1, NNM-5, and KBM). The study concludes that agricultural financing significantly enhances crop productivity but may unintentionally exacerbate income inequality. It recommends targeted financial inclusion strategies to ensure equitable access to credit. Furthermore, it advocates for practical, hands-on training programs tailored to farmers‘ realworld needs, rather than theoretical lectures. Such capacity-building initiatives should focus on improving technical expertise, efficient input utilization, and financial literacy, thereby maximizing the benefits of agricultural financing for sustainable rural development. Keywords: Agricultural Financing, Crop Productivity, Propensity Score Matching, Logit, Gini

Small scale irrigation (SSI) technologies offer a promising solution to address challenges of low agricultural productivity, unreliable rainfall, and rural poverty in Ethiopia. However, their performance and sustainability remain inconsistent, particularly in regions like East Gojjam Zone, Amhara Region. This study aimed to assess the adoption trends, performance challenges, and economic viability of furrow irrigation and motor pump systems across two districts Debre Elias and Machakel. A cross sectional, mixedmethods design was employed, drawing on data from 280 smallholder farmers selected through a multistage sampling procedure. Descriptive analysis showed moderate irrigation access, but a 25.4% overall defect rate raised concerns about technology reliability. Binary logistic regression identified income, credit access, and training as key factors reducing defect occurrence, while motor pump use and larger irrigated areas increased risk. Economic analysis revealed that furrow systems were more profitable, yielding a higher five year Net Present Value and Benefit Cost Ratio than motor pumps. Despite these gains, sustainability challenges persisted, including soil degradation and inefficient water use. The study also found notable district level variation, with furrow systems dominating in Debre Elias due to affordability, and topography favoring gravity flow and motor pumps preferred in Machakel for their productivity potential. Qualitative findings highlighted high maintenance costs and limited institutional support as barriers to sustained use. Based on these insights, the study recommends strengthening farmer access to credit, improving training services, and upgrading irrigation technologies to enhance the long term impact of SSI on smallholder livelihoods and agricultural sustainability

This study investigates the status of biomass stove usage in East Gojjam, Ethiopia, and evaluates the health, economic, and environmental benefits of an improved biomass stove which was designed and fabricated using locally available materials. Major challenges in the study areas were uses of traditional three-stone stoves, which are inefficient and produce harmful emissions. The study aims to assess the status of stoves used, source, amount and type of biomass consumption per household, to analyze the health impact of improved biomass stove with conventional stove and to analyze the economic and environmental impact of the conventional and improved stove.Two stove models were fabricated: one for household use and another for institutional settings. Construction materials included angle iron, sheet metal, ceramic tiles, sand, and clay for insulation. Eucalyptus wood a commonly used local biomass fuel was standardized for all testing, including oven drying and storage procedures. Performance evaluation was based on cooking time, fuel consumption, and emissions (CO and PM2.5), using laboratory and field tests. Additional data were collected through surveys, interviews, focus group discussions, and direct observations from 400 households across three districts: Dejen, Yedwuha and Debrework.According to the result; the improved biomass stove significantly outperformed the conventional three stone stove: reducing cooking time by 51.61%, fuel consumption by 12.34%, carbon monoxide emissions by 99.72%, and PM2.5 emissions by 75.52%. It also demonstrated substantial environmental benefits, including lower firewood demand and reduced deforestation. Economically, households saved over 3,225 birr per year in fuel and time costs.In conclusion, the improved biomass stove offers a viable, scalable solution to Ethiopia’s household energy and health challenges. Its adoption can significantly mitigate household air pollution, improve public health, reduce environmental degradation, and strengthen economic resilience, particularly for women and children. The study recommends expanding the dissemination of the improved biomass stoves through targeted policy support, community education, and financing mechanisms.

ABSTRACTSilver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were synthesized from the root extract Stephania abyssinica by aneco-friendly and cost-effective method. Stephania abyssinica root extract with AgNO3 solutionwas used to synthesize AgNPs. The synthesized nanoparticles were characterized by UV–Vis,FTIR and XRD spectrophotometers. The antimicrobial activity of the nanoparticles was testedby the agar disc diffusion method. The result was that the dark yellow colour solution changedto brown solution with AgNO3 solution confirming the formation of AgNPs. The UV–Vis peak at275 nm in the plant extract shows the presence of organic compounds that interact with silverto form AgNPs. The FTIR spectrum of AgNPs shows peaks at 3406 cm−1, 2353 cm−1, 1615 cm−1and 1021 cm−1. The XRD result showed that the AgNPs are face centred cubic crystallinestructures having a size of 20.8 nm. The synthesized AgNps are more potent in Gram-negative bacteria than Gram-positive bacteria.
KEYWORDS: Silver nanoparticles; Stephania abyssinica; antimicrobial activity; green synthesis; spectral analysis

Eucalyptus was frst introduced to Ethiopia in the late 19th century to address the scarcity of frewood and construction wood in thecapital city. Since then, it has spread across the country and has become an important source of income for many households whilealso reducing the need for deforestation. Despite concerns raised by environmentalists about its eco-hydrological impact, theplantation has expanded to cover a vast area of the nation, including farmlands and mountainous regions. Currently, around506,000 hectares of land in Ethiopia are covered by Eucalyptus plantations. Te growth of Eucalyptus plantations can be attributed tovarious socioeconomic, ecological, and biological factors, including the increasing demand for wood and wood products. However,this growth has also led to negative environmental consequences such as reduced surface and groundwater fow, decreased cropproductivity, soil fertility degradation and depletion, and high water consumption, which can result in water scarcity. To address theseenvironmental impacts, it is essential to select appropriate species and sites and implement proper silvicultural and land use planningbefore planting. Additionally, promoting renewable energy sources and planting environmentally sound fast-growing indigenousand exotic tree species can help reduce the adverse efects of Eucalyptus on the environment.Keywords: deforestation; environmental impacts; Eucalyptus plantation; indigenous and exotic tree species

Extreme flood and drought events arise from temporal and spatial variations in the Earth’s water cycle, signif-icantly affecting water resources and the environment. This review aimed to evaluate the effects of climatevariabilities on extreme flood and drought events within the Blue Nile Basin. A systematic literature review andcontent analysis were conducted to understand the hydrological dynamics of floods and droughts. A Scopusdatabase was used to find relevant literature review articles related to flood and drought extreme events usingsearch terms queries. The findings suggest that rising temperatures and fluctuating precipitation patterns areleading to more frequent and severe floods and droughts. Future projections also suggest increased droughtseverity in most basin areas, coupled with more frequent floods. Fluctuations between dry and wet conditionshave intensified these extremes. While insufficient rainfall triggers droughts, excessive and concentrated rainfallcontributes to floods. The wet projection shows more frequent floods, while the dry projection indicates severedroughts throughout most of the basin. This review provides a valuable starting point for further action towards amore climate-resilient and water-secure for sustainable environmental development and management over thebasin.
Keywords: BNB, Climate variability, Hydrological extremes, Water resource

The use of metal nanoparticles as antibiotics for resistant pathogens has become a current topic of research. Biosyn-thesized nanoparticles are promising drugs as antibacterial agents by inhibiting bacteria from infectious diseases. Thisstudy aimed at the synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) from AgNO 3 solution and Sida schim-periana Hochst. ex A. Rich leaves extract. The synthesized AgNPs were characterized by Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR),Ultraviolet–Visible (UV–Vis) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectroscopic techniques and evaluated for antibacterial activi-ties against Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis) and Gram-negative (Escherichia coliand Klebsiella Pneumonia) bacteria by the disc diffusion method. The result indicated an initial color change that wasobserved below 400 nm for the leaves extract and 429 nm for AgNPs in the UV–Vis band supporting the synthesis ofsilver nanoparticles. The FTIR peaks at 3447, 1638 and 1413 cm −1 predict the hydroxyl, carbonyl and unsaturated C–Cbonds, respectively, in the plant leaves extract. The XRD analysis showed that the synthesized AgNPs were crystalline innature and face-centered cubic (FCC) structure with an average particle size of 26.27 nm. Furthermore, the synthesizednanoparticles showed antimicrobial activity to both types of bacteria, more significant being on Gram-negative bacteria(E. coli). In conclusion, the leaves extract of Sida schimperiana Hochst. ex A. Rich plant contains bioactive molecules thatare used in the reduction and stabilization of AgNPs as potential antibacterial agents.Keywords: Biosynthesis · Phytochemicals · Antimicrobial resistance · Medicinal plant · Resistant pathogens

Eucalyptus camaldulensis is commonly planted on farmland in highland Ethiopia because of its high economic proftability.However, the expansion of woodlot plantations has led to a decline in crop growth and yield, which negatively afects foodsecurity. To address this issue, this study aimed to examine the efects of Eucalyptus camaldulensis woodlot expansion on cropproduction and food security in South Achefer. Data were collected from 180 respondents using a three-stage sampling techniquefor the four kebeles in the district. Te survey data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics, and a binary logitregression model using SPSS software version 24. Tis study found that most households (87%) perceived a rapid increase inEucalyptus woodlot expansion. Te allocation of more land for Eucalyptus woodlot expansion was positively and signifcantlyafected by family size, landholding size, total annual income, and availability of unproductive land. Additionally, the studyrevealed that Eucalyptus woodlots highly compete with nearly all grown crops for nutrients and moisture. Tis causes a reductionin yield from one to four quintals compared to the normal crop grown far from the Eucalyptus tree. Approximately three-fourths(71%) of the sampled farmers did not obtain stable food annually and were considered food insecure. To alleviate food insecurity,this study suggests that stakeholders should focus on improving livelihood alternatives rather than expanding Eucalyptuswoodlots.Keywords: access; availability; binary logistic regression; stability; utilization; woodlot

This research aimed at evaluation of a given land resource suitable for selected rain fed crops production (maltbarley, wheat and teff ) in Ambesh watershed. It also quantified suitable land and classified into the land mappingunits (LMUs), and presents a land suitability map. Land suitability assessment (LSA) made using climatic condition,topography, soil physical and chemical properties as a major factor integrated with a multi criteria decision making(MCDM) analysis in Ambesh watershed. Fourteen composite soil samples were taken by categorizing the water-shed into different land mapping units (LMUs) and analyzed in a soil laboratory. Climatic data, rainfall was obtainedfrom two meteorological stations nearby to the study area. Temperature data derived from Landsat 8 satellite ther-mal bands data. Data obtained from the soil laboratory and others were finally analyzed using ArcGIS environmentand priority estimation tool (PriEsT) software’s. Weighted Sum Overlay was implemented to investigate the final LSAmap of the watershed. Results revealed that LMUs, VRe–LPq and LPK.Pq–FLc LMUs has higher overall suitability for allthe selected rain fed crops. However, LMUs (VRe–NTu and NTu–VRe) has lower overall suitability values particularlyfor S1 suitability class (0.05% and 10.6%, respectively). The least suitable LMU is VRe–NTu with 0.05% S 1 suitability classand above 99% of the land laid under the suitability classes of moderately suitable, marginally suitable and not suit-able for the selected land utilization types. Moreover, about 219.06 ha (17.76%), 217.6 ha (17.64%), 168.9 ha (13.7%),of land are highly suitable for malt barley, teff and wheat crop production, respectively. In conclusion, during MCDM,classifying the land into closer homogeneities (LMU) an important application of LSA integrated with remote sens-ing and GIS for a better decision making. Meanwhile, majority (above two third’s) of the land in the watershedis under moderate and marginally suitable, it needs intensive land management activities to increase the land quali-ties and obtain high yields. LSA recommended before land utilization decision has to be made. It is also importantto classifying the land into LMUs to make it more homogeneous for sample taking and reducing the prestigious soillaboratory analysis costs.Keywords LMUs, Land suitability assessment, Malt Barley, RS, Teff, Weighted sum, Wheat