EXECUTIVE SUMMARY  Agricultural financing plays a critical role in enhancing crop productivity and fostering rural development, particularly in agrarian economies. This study aims to empirically investigate the impact of agricultural financing on the crop productivity of smallholder farmers and assess its implications on income inequality. To achieve this objective, a mixed research approach was adopted, integrating both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. An explanatory research design was employed to explore the causal relationship between access to agricultural financing and crop output. Primary data were collected from a sample of 800 crop-producing households using structured questionnaires, interview schedules, and focus group discussions, selected through simple random sampling. Secondary data were obtained through document reviews from relevant institutional sources. The data were analysed using descriptive statistics and econometric modelling techniques, specifically Propensity Score Matching (PSM), to estimate the Average Treatment Effect on the Treated (ATT). A binary logit model was used to identify the determinants of access to agricultural financing. The results revealed that age, seed cost, labor cost, tractor access (as a proxy for infrastructure), education level, and farming experience significantly influenced whether a household received agricultural financing. Conversely, variables such as plant protection, fertilizer use, and landholding size were found to have an insignificant effect. The covariate balancing indicators and balance plots confirmed that the matching algorithms were successful in reducing selection bias, with mean standardized bias decreasing by up to 77.5% and pseudo R² values dropping significantly post-matching. The common support condition was also satisfied, ensuring the reliability of the PSM estimates. The PSM results confirmed that agricultural financing had a statistically significant and positive impact on crop productivity. On average, farmers with access to financing produced ETB 3,942.53 to ETB 6,251.01 more per season compared to those without access, depending on the matching algorithm used (NNM-1, NNM-5, and KBM). The study concludes that agricultural financing significantly enhances crop productivity but may unintentionally exacerbate income inequality. It recommends targeted financial inclusion strategies to ensure equitable access to credit. Furthermore, it advocates for practical, hands-on training programs tailored to farmers‘ realworld needs, rather than theoretical lectures. Such capacity-building initiatives should focus on improving technical expertise, efficient input utilization, and financial literacy, thereby maximizing the benefits of agricultural financing for sustainable rural development. Keywords: Agricultural Financing, Crop Productivity, Propensity Score Matching, Logit, Gini

Abstract The general objective of the study was to assess voting behaviour in Ethiopia, challenges and prospects, Amhara Regional State. The data for this study was obtained through mixed approach with sequential exploratory research design. Thematic approach has followed to analyze the data collected using key informant interview and focus groups discussions for qualitative data and descriptive analysis for quantitative date by using SPSS. The study explored the status of voting behaviour in the study area. Accordingly, the major challenges which affected voting behaviour of citizens are undemocratic legacy, oppressed government systems, weak democratic institutions, constraints of awareness about political participation and lack of trust on electoral election process and result. Finally, if all stakeholders have striving in collaboration, we could build strong democratic government and electoral process. Hence, researchers recommended that, each section of the society attained adult suffrage should be responsible for democratization process, free and fair election and to positively encourage the behaviour of citizens towards voting.  Key words: Voting, voting behavior, unfair electoral system 

ABSTRACT The present study was conducted to identify best hot pepper varieties & planting method for yield and resistance to F. oxysporium in West Gojjam, Ethiopia under field and greenhouse condition. The green house experiment was conducted at Burie Campus by using plastic house prepared with 3.5 m height and an area of 4m by 3 m. The experiment was conducted by transplanting of 6 hot pepper varieties with 2 months seedlings. Inoculation was performed following the standard cut-root dip inoculation technique. Hot-pepper varieties were grouped in to: immune, resistant, moderately resistant, susceptible and highly susceptible. Oda Gibe was the best variety that showed 9.7 % wilt incidence followed by Oda Haro that showed moderately resistant with a reaction of 26.3 % wilt incidence. On the other hand, the field experiment was conducted at Mankus kebele, Jabi Tehinan Districts with a total of 12 treatment combination (6 hot pepper varieties: Bako local, Marko Fana, Melka Awaze, Melka Zala, Oda Gibe and Oda Haro with 2 planting methods: Ridge and flat plant bed).The experiment was laid out in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. Two months old Seedlings were transplanted on plots having an area of 4 m x 3 m (12 m2). Observations of naturally occurring fusarium wilt development was inspected at 7 days interval three times. Growth parameters of hot pepper were affected by the main effects of variety and planting method but insignificantly by their interactions. Besides the varietal effect, the longer plants and more number of primary and secondary branches were recorded from raised bed that has showed less disease incidence than flat planting. On the other hand, all yield related parameters were significantly different by the interaction effect of variety with planting method. The highest mean marketable as well as mean dry total pod weight was obtained from ridge planting of Oda Gibe variety which has showed least susceptibility to fusarium wilt. Oda Gibe and Oda Haro variety integrated with Raised bed significantly reduced Fusarium wilt incidence as compared to the area production system of Marko Fana with flat planting method. However, the experiment was conducted at a single location, so that it would be better if it is repeated over season and location to provide comprehensive recommendations. Key words; - Planting method, Fusarium wilt, hot pepper, Incidence 

ABSTRACT Food security remains a critical global challenge, with millions of people suffering from hunger and malnutrition. Agricultural Multi-Purpose Cooperatives (AMPCs) are intended to improve food security by enhancing access to inputs, markets, and services. This study examines the impact of AMPCs on rural household food security in West Gojjam using ordinal logistic regression. Out of a total sample size of 1,122 rural households, 1,068 were included in the analysis. The study employed a cross-sectional research design. The findings revealed that, out of the 1,068 households surveyed, 45.3% were food secure, 22.6% were mildly food insecure and 32.1% were food insecure. Overall, 54.7% experienced some level of food insecurity, highlighting the need for improved food access and support interventions. The multiple ordinal logistic regression analysis revealed that factors such as female-headed households, large household size, smaller landholdings, lack of livestock ownership, absence of non-farm income, limited irrigation access, lack of credit, lack of Market Access, and  no use of agricultural inputs significantly increase the likelihood of rural household food insecurity. Based on the results, it is recommended to focus on supporting female-headed households, reducing household size through family planning, improving land access, increasing livestock ownership, promoting non-farm income opportunities, enhancing irrigation access, providing credit, strengthening market linkages, and ensuring the widespread use of agricultural inputs to improve food security. Keywords: Agricultural cooperatives, food security, rural households, West Gojjam, Ethiopia, ordinal logistic regression. 

ABSTRACT Food security remains a critical global challenge, with millions of people suffering from hunger and malnutrition. Agricultural Multi-Purpose Cooperatives (AMPCs) are intended to improve food security by enhancing access to inputs, markets, and services. This study examines the impact of AMPCs on rural household food security in West Gojjam using ordinal logistic regression. Out of a total sample size of 1,122 rural households, 1,068 were included in the analysis. The study employed a cross-sectional research design. The findings revealed that, out of the 1,068 households surveyed, 45.3% were food secure, 22.6% were mildly food insecure and 32.1% were food insecure. Overall, 54.7% experienced some level of food insecurity, highlighting the need for improved food access and support interventions. The multiple ordinal logistic regression analysis revealed that factors such as female-headed households, large household size, smaller landholdings, lack of livestock ownership, absence of non-farm income, limited irrigation access, lack of credit, lack of Market Access, and  no use of agricultural inputs significantly increase the likelihood of rural household food insecurity. Based on the results, it is recommended to focus on supporting female-headed households, reducing household size through family planning, improving land access, increasing livestock ownership, promoting non-farm income opportunities, enhancing irrigation access, providing credit, strengthening market linkages, and ensuring the widespread use of agricultural inputs to improve food security. Keywords: Agricultural cooperatives, food security, rural households, West Gojjam, Ethiopia, ordinal logistic regression. 

ABSTRACT While it is dependent on erratic rainfall and subject to drought and low productivity, agriculture is still the dominant economic activity in Ethiopia. Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) technology adoption enhances productivity, resilience, and climate mitigation, yet its adoption by smallholder farmers in Ethiopia’s West Gojjam Zone remains limited despite government promotion. However, research on the factors behind the determinants of the low adoption rate is limited in the study area. The main objectives of this study were to investigate the factors influencing the adoption of five CSA-aligned practices: crop diversification, livestock diversification, irrigation, agroforestry, and the application of chemical fertilizers across selected woredas. Data were generated using structured questionnaires, key informant interviews, and focus groups from a total of 236 households selected using a multistage sampling technique. The analysis made by a multivariate probit model revealed that significant determinants included the gender of the household head, education, farm size, income, irrigation access, credit availability, extension services, and farming experience. Findings suggest that enhancing crop and livestock diversification requires expanding irrigation access, strengthening extension services, and integrating climate-smart advisory programs to equip farmers with essential skills and resources. Additionally, improving credit access, providing climate information through mobile phone SMS for free, and promoting farmer training can boost irrigation adoption, while targeted awareness campaigns can encourage experienced farmers to adopt modern irrigation technologies. Keywords: Adoption; Climate-Smart Agricultural Practices; Multivariate probit, West Gojjam

AbstractThis study investigated the factors influencing growers in the selection of seed suppliers in theAmhara region of Ethiopia. A total of 385 grower were selected using simple random sam-pling method. A mixed logit regression model was used to the analysis data that have 1284observation. The result reveal that high seed purity was negatively related to the selectionof alternative supplier. As the rating of seed purity increased, the probability of selectingvery high-quality seed suppliers also increased. The availability of tree seeds during the desiredtime period had a significant influence. Higher perceived availability, categorized as high orvery high, decreased the likelihood of promptly obtaining seeds from suppliers comparedto when the seeds were not available. The evaluation rating of germination increases the prob-ability of choosing suppliers with high or very high germination rates in the respective cat-egory. Growers with more experience are more likely to choose private enterprise suppliers.The implementation of appropriate quarantine measures has a positive influence on supplierselection for the groups AFE and EFD-CEC. Training in tree seed collection reduces the like-lihood of choosing enterprise and AFE suppliers. Moreover, the successful production of agreater number of tree species in the nursery positively influences the probability of sourcingfrom enterprise suppliers. This analysis highlights the significance of seed purity, germination,quarantine measures, and the number of species produced, as factors that influence the like-lihood of selecting alternative seed suppliers.
Keywords: growers; mixed logit regression; tree seed suppliers; tree seed

Extreme flood and drought events arise from temporal and spatial variations in the Earth’s water cycle, signif-icantly affecting water resources and the environment. This review aimed to evaluate the effects of climatevariabilities on extreme flood and drought events within the Blue Nile Basin. A systematic literature review andcontent analysis were conducted to understand the hydrological dynamics of floods and droughts. A Scopusdatabase was used to find relevant literature review articles related to flood and drought extreme events usingsearch terms queries. The findings suggest that rising temperatures and fluctuating precipitation patterns areleading to more frequent and severe floods and droughts. Future projections also suggest increased droughtseverity in most basin areas, coupled with more frequent floods. Fluctuations between dry and wet conditionshave intensified these extremes. While insufficient rainfall triggers droughts, excessive and concentrated rainfallcontributes to floods. The wet projection shows more frequent floods, while the dry projection indicates severedroughts throughout most of the basin. This review provides a valuable starting point for further action towards amore climate-resilient and water-secure for sustainable environmental development and management over thebasin.
Keywords: BNB, Climate variability, Hydrological extremes, Water resource

Eucalyptus is the most preferred exotic species in diferent parts of Ethiopia, particularly in the northern part of the country,including the study area. Socioeconomic, institutional, and endowment variables are an infuence on the production of thisspecies. Te purpose of this study was to identify determinants of Eucalyptus woodlot production for producer farmers in thestudy area. Multistage sampling techniques were used in order to select the district, kebeles, and household heads to beinterviewed. Te district and the kebeles were selected purposefully based on their high potential for Eucalyptus production,whereas ninety-six (96) sampled respondent farmers were selected by using simple random sampling techniques. A multiple linearregression (OLS) model was used to run the determinants of Eucalyptus woodlot production, and descriptive statistics were usedto describe the socioeconomic characteristics of smallholder Eucalyptus producers in the form of means, frequencies, andpercentages. Te respondents use Eucalyptus products for construction and fuel wood. Rural farmers produced about 70% ofconstruction wood products and 30% of fuel wood products annually. Five variables (i.e., woodlot size, woodlot density, andmarket information) signifcantly afected woodlot production, whereas the age of farmers and market distance were negativelyafected. In order to produce better income from Eucalyptus products, the collaboration eforts of all responsible groups (i.e.,farmers, researchers, governments, and others) should be required.

Abstract: The egg quality measurements were undertaken as egg weight loss (%), shell thickness,Haugh unit, yolk height, yolk width, yolk index and albumen height. The non-sprayed chickeneggs showed a higher weight loss percentage of 3.07% within 15 days of storage. However, itwas shown to be lower the weight loss of 0.48% when sprayed. Even though a progressivedecrease in yolk height, albumen height, yolk index and Haugh unit values were shown as thestorage period advances, sprayed eggs which resulted to be greater within each storage periodthan non-sprayed eggs. Non- sprayed eggs stored for 15, 10, 5, and 0 day had a Haugh unit valueof 52.42±2.66, 73.29±6.44, 77.51±3.88 and 85.72 ± 2.85, respectively. Whereas, Haugh unitvalues were shown as 82.43±4.31, 82.90 ±4.43, 84.73 ±3.25 and 85.52±6.37 respectively whichrecorded after spraying. There were significant differences (P < 0.05) in moisture percentage, fatand protein content among non-sprayed eggs kept for different storage period. But percentage ofash and carbohydrate were unaffected. There was gradually decreased in the percentage ofmoisture, fat and protein content as the storage period advances.Keywords: Haugh unit, Albumen height, Fat, Protein, Ash, Carbohydrate